Odiseea alcatuieste impreuna cu Iliada un grup de doua epopei grecesti atribuite lui Homer. Scrisa in a doua jumatate a secolului VIII i.Hr., Odiseea este una dintre cele mai vechi si renumite opere literare din mitologia greaca,antica.
Opera este alcatuita din 12.200 de versuri impartite in 24 de canturi, decriind ratacirile regelui dupa zece ani de razboi si inca alti zece ani de peripetii in drumul sau de reintoarcere pe mica Itaca. Vazand Ulise ca nici dupa 10 ani aheii nu au izbutit sa treaca zidurile Troiei, nascoci un viclesug. Puse mesteri priceputi sa intocmeasca un cal urias de lemn, apoi il umplu cu soldati si il lasa noaptea la portile cetatii. In zori, aheii se prefacura ca se intorc la ei acasa, dadura foc corturilor,se urcara pe corabii si plecara de la tarm. Troienii bagara calul in cetate si s-au pus pe baut bucurosi ca au scapat de urgia razboiului. Pe cand zaceau beti, noaptea, un grec furisat dinainte in cetate, deschise usa din burta calului. Ostenii ahei sarira afara si deschisera portile cetatii pe care intrara ostile plecate cu corabile. In noaptea aceea, Troia fu arsa pana in temelii, iar troienii care au scapat de la moarte au devenit sclavi....
Acest blog a fost creat cu scopul de a publica diverse referate si date despre diferite opere, venind astfel in ajutorul elevilor si studentilor.
vineri, 23 ianuarie 2015
joi, 22 ianuarie 2015
SOURCES OF ENRICHING THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY
An important cause of lexical change is borrowing. Referring to the importance of borrowings in the study of language history and history of civilisation, Otto Jespersen remarks that "... in a great many instances they permit us to fix approximately the dates of linguistic changes. Languages change gradually because of various reasons. The rapidity with which these changes take place: may differ. Sometimes, the speakers are hardly aware of changes, while in other periods of time these take place so fast that even during the lifetime of a single generation the differences are easily noticeable.
Military organisation and life is shown by such terms as admiral, armour, arms, army, assault, battle, company, danger, enemy, force, guard, lieutenant, march, navy, officer, peace, sergeant, siege, soldier, troops, war.
The legal vocabulary is made up of such terms as attorney, crime, damage, defendant, felony, judge, jury, justice, plaintiff, property, session, to accuse, to plead, to sue, to summon.
Religious terms are: abbey, altar, angel, baptism, clergy, cloister, friar, parish, religion, saint, saviour, sermon, to blame, to preach, to save, to tempt, trinity, virgin.
Terms describing moral values or their lack are charity, chaste, cruelty, grace, mercy, pity, sacrifice, vice, virtue.
Other words are: bistro, boutique, cinema verite, couchette, danseur, discotheque, haute couture, magicienne, messagerie, regisseur, repetiteur.
From Japanese there have been borrowed fewer words, with a rather restricted circulation, e.g.
bonsai "the art of growing dwarfed ornamental varieties of trees or shrubs in small shallow pots or trays by selective pruning" and " a tree or shrub grown by this method";
haiku "an epigrammatic Japanese verse form in 17 syllables";
hara-kiri or hari-kari "ritual suicide by disembowelment with a sword when disgraced or under sentence of death";
Not all words of foreign origin have been assimilated (adapted to the phonological, graphical and morphological tradition of English) to the same extent. Such words as
the Latin bottle, candle, cherry, rule, use, very, wine,
the Greek blame, card, cinema, dialect, dragon, drama, grammar, idiom, radio, telescope,
the Scandinavian fellow, knee, knight, to hit, plough, to ride, and
the French words army, country, crime, crown, damage, government, judge, etc. have been completely assimilated.
MINOR DEVICES OF WORD BUILDING
ABRREVIATION (Shortening)
Shortenings are (words) produced either by means of clipping full-words or by clipping word combinations but having the meaning of the full word or combination:
UNO (United Nation Organisation)
AIDS (Acquired immune Deficiency Syndrome)
BOAC (British Overseas Airways Corporation)
pipple = person inheriting parent’s property
P.O.W.’s (the prisoner of wars)
O.A.P.’s (old age pensioners)
REVERSE ACRONYMS (ABBREVIATIONS)
An interesting phenomenon in recent years has been the rise of reverse acronyms – the creators start with a word they want as their name, for example, CORE, and then they work from those four letters to find four words which represent something like the idea they want to be associated with. CORE is the acronym for Congress of Racial Equality, NOW is the acronym of the National Organization of Women, MADD is the acronym of Mothers Against Drunk Drivers,etc.
CONTRACTION (clipping) is a very old formation device dating back to the 13th century. There are four different types of clipping:
1. Aphaeresis (fore-clipping) is the reduction of the first part of a word
e.g.: ex]ample becomes sample
ex]change- change
Syncope is the reduction of the middle part of a word:
e.g.: mar[ke]t – mart; ma[d]am – ma’am; ne[v]er – ne’er; o[v]er – o’er
3. Apocope is the reduction of the last part of a word (- the most productive in Modern English)
e.g.: exam[ination – exam; Jap[anese – Jap; doc[tor – doc; pub[lic house - pub
4. Fore and back clipping
e.g.: in]flu[enza; re]frige[rator (fridge)
CHANGE OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL ACCENT
It is a lexical device consisting in putting the accent in a different position in order to form a new word:
e.g. Nouns Verbs
‘accent ac’cent
‘contract con’tract
‘record re’cord
‘object ob’ject
‘subject sub’ject
‘progress pro’gress
Nouns Adjectives
‘alphabet alpha’betic(al)
‘accident acci’dental
‘agriculture agri’cultural
DEFLECTION is derivation based on vowel change in the root of a word:
e.g. song – to sing
loss – to lose
long – length
BACK-FORMATION
It appears when a part of a word is wrongly interpreted as a suffix or a prefix. Thus, it was supposed that the noun puppy (derived from the French poupee) comprised the suffix y; hence the form pup (căţeluş).
e.g. the nouns beggar à to beg
pedlar à to peddle (a se ţine de fleacuri, a face comerţ ambulant)
television à to televise
enthusiasm à to enthuse
EXPRESSIVENESS IN LANGUAGE
JARGON
· There are speech sub-varieties that are associated with particular occupations. These sub-varieties are primarily distinguished by their JARGON (i.e. their peculiar words and word-like expressions). The manufacture of jargon is one of the richest sources of new words.
· Jargon serves a very useful purpose. It provides members of a social sub-group with the lexical items they need in order to talk about the subject matter that their field deals with.
SLANG - “language which takes off its coat, spits on its hands – and goes to work”. (Carl Sandburg, American poet, 1878 – 1967)
· It often provides new terms even where none are needed.
· In any language, slang is a proving ground for new words.
· It can be the select speech of groups that wish to be different.
· Although slang creates group identity, it is not necessarily job related. Slang is a badge of membership among such groups as teenagers, jazz musicians, to name a few. Only those who belong to the group can make sense of its particular slang.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Some figures of speech are frequently apt to enrich the vocabulary of a language.
Simile and metaphor (Gr. metaphora = to carry over; Lat similis = like)
A simile compares notions essentially dissimilar, making use of some features which make the parallel possible.
e.g. as sweet as honey (dulce ca mierea), as cross as nine highways (supărat foc), as drunk as a lord (beat mort), as mad as a hatter (nebun de legat), as plump as a partridge (gras ca o dropie)
Metonymy (Gr. meta = change, + onoma = name) is a figure of speech by means of which the name of an object is replaced by one of its significant attributes.
e.g. iron instead of smoothing iron, hand instead of worker, the gallery instead of the spectators in the gallery, fox instead of fox's fur, the triple crown instead of the Pope
Hyperbole (Gr. hyperbole) is the use of exaggerated terms for the sake of emphasis.
e.g. scared to death, wet to the bone, to make mountains out of mole-hills ("a face din ţânţar armăsar"), a thousand thanks, full to the brim ("plin ochi")
Most similes are hyperbolical in their essence.
e.g. as black as a coal, as sweet as honey, as white as snow
Euphemism (from Greek eu = good, +phene = voice) consists in the substitution of an agreeable phrase or expression for one that is hard, indelicate or taboo.
e.g an elderly lady for "an old woman", gentleman of fortune for "pirate, mercenary", approved school for "correction school", army form blank for "toilet paper", environmental engineer or landscape architect for "gardener", Community Treatment Centre for "prison", sanitary officer for "garbage-man" or "dustman", funny house for "institution for lunatics"etc.
Syllepsis (from Greek syllepsis=putting together) is a figure of speech based on homonymy, implying the simultaneous use of the same lexical unit in two different senses or functions, of which one is proper and the other is figurative.
e.g. Hasn't John ever married? No, he's studying for a bachelor's degree.
miercuri, 21 ianuarie 2015
SEMANTIC RELATIONS BETWEEN WORDS
SYNONYMY
The problem of synonymy is of utmost importance for the study of a language, either theoretical or practical, but a universally accredited theory of synonymy is still lacking. Superficially, the notion of synonymy is a straightforward one: two words are synonyms if they have the same meanings. Consider the following examples:
1. a. Mr. Smith is our postman. 1. b. Mr. Smith is our mailman. 2. a. Ann is skinny. 2. b. Ann is thin. 2. c. Ann is slender.
ANTONYMS are words whose meanings are in a relation of opposition, e.g. dull ¹ clever; slow moving ¹ quick moving; unfeeling ¹ sensitive, depressed ¹ in high spirits
· Sometimes the antonyms of two words may be restricted by the power to combine with different words: e.g. tall and low are antonyms only when used in combination with words denoting inanimate things: a tall building ¹ a low building; the antonym of tall in a tall man is the adjective short (a short man);
- other example: an old building ¹ a new building, an old man ¹ a young man
HOMONYMS - are words alike but having different meanings. Homonyms may be:
a) words pronounced and spelt alike
b) words pronounced alike but spelt differently
c) words spelt alike but pronounced differently
PARONYMS are very frequent in English and they are easily misunderstood. They are words that have either a close form or a close sound shape. Their meanings are not related. Sometimes more than two words are grouped in a paronymical series.
e.g. draft – draught think – sink effect – affect sheep- ship
low – law device-devise peace – piece
luni, 19 ianuarie 2015
Sofocle - Antigona
Sofocle a fost un poet tragic grec. Impreuna cu Eschil si Euripide, a pus bazele tragediei clasice grecesti. Aduce insemnate inovatii in tehnica teatrala. Opera marelui tragic , continuator al lui Eschil, cuprinde peste 120 de piese dintre care ne-au ramas in intregime. In crearea tragediilor, Sofocle se inspira din aceleasi izvoare ca si Eschil, ca si inaintasul sau, el face apel la cunoscutele legende si eroi mitologici, tematica unora dintre tragediile sale fiind asemanatoare cu a pieselor lui Eschil, sau continua pur si simplu tema abordata de acesta(de pilda, in Antigona, Sofofcle porneste de la momentul final al tragediei :Cei sapte contra Tebei. Antigona este o tragedie scrisa de Sofocle inainte de 442 i.Hr. sau chiar in acest an.
Antigona a fost fiica lui Oedip, regele cetatii Theba, nascuta din dragoste incenstuoasa a aceastuia cu mama sa. Ca si Oedip rege, tragedia Antigona reprezinta una din cele mai pretioase creatii literare ale antichitatii. Antigona, cutezatoarea fiica a lui Oedip asista la dezastrul provocat de lupta dintre fratii ei, Eteocle si Polinke. Amandoi au cazut in lupta, iar tronul Tebei este ocupat de Creon. Regele dispune sa se organizeze inmormantarea lui Eteocle, aparatorul cetatii. Pt celalalt fiu a lui Oedip, Polinike - venit cu oaste straina sa cucereasca cetatea, se interzice chiar simpla inmormantare. Impotriva asprului ordin regesc, infruntand pericolul pedepsei cu moartea, se ridica Antigona, sora celor doi luptatori. In mare taina, ea preda pamantului trupul lui Polinike, indepliind astfel obligatia ce i-o reclama, potrivit obiceiului,legatura de sange cu cel mort.
Fapta Antigonei a fost insa repede descoperita de Creon care o condamna la moarte. Ea este insa inflexibila fata de punctul de vedere pe care il apara, e netamatoare in fata mortii, o priveste ca pe o eliberare de suferinta. Triumfa moral,princpiile promovate ii supravietuiesc. In discutia aprinsa dintre Creon si Antigona se dezvaluie o ciocnire ascutita de principii morale. Antigona, fecioara firava si gingasa, este inzestrata cu un caracter indraznet, cu un curaj demn de luptator. Taria ei de a-l infrunta pe rege se trage din constiinta ce actioneaza in numele legilor strabune, nescrise, in care se sintetizeaza morala traditionala, adanc inradacinata in cetatile grecesti. Antigona va pieri intemnitata, dar Creon va primi crunta pedeapsa pierzandu-si fiul si sotia.
Finalul operei este evident tragic, Antigona se sinucide, moarte succedata de cea a logodnicului ei.
Antigona a fost fiica lui Oedip, regele cetatii Theba, nascuta din dragoste incenstuoasa a aceastuia cu mama sa. Ca si Oedip rege, tragedia Antigona reprezinta una din cele mai pretioase creatii literare ale antichitatii. Antigona, cutezatoarea fiica a lui Oedip asista la dezastrul provocat de lupta dintre fratii ei, Eteocle si Polinke. Amandoi au cazut in lupta, iar tronul Tebei este ocupat de Creon. Regele dispune sa se organizeze inmormantarea lui Eteocle, aparatorul cetatii. Pt celalalt fiu a lui Oedip, Polinike - venit cu oaste straina sa cucereasca cetatea, se interzice chiar simpla inmormantare. Impotriva asprului ordin regesc, infruntand pericolul pedepsei cu moartea, se ridica Antigona, sora celor doi luptatori. In mare taina, ea preda pamantului trupul lui Polinike, indepliind astfel obligatia ce i-o reclama, potrivit obiceiului,legatura de sange cu cel mort.
Fapta Antigonei a fost insa repede descoperita de Creon care o condamna la moarte. Ea este insa inflexibila fata de punctul de vedere pe care il apara, e netamatoare in fata mortii, o priveste ca pe o eliberare de suferinta. Triumfa moral,princpiile promovate ii supravietuiesc. In discutia aprinsa dintre Creon si Antigona se dezvaluie o ciocnire ascutita de principii morale. Antigona, fecioara firava si gingasa, este inzestrata cu un caracter indraznet, cu un curaj demn de luptator. Taria ei de a-l infrunta pe rege se trage din constiinta ce actioneaza in numele legilor strabune, nescrise, in care se sintetizeaza morala traditionala, adanc inradacinata in cetatile grecesti. Antigona va pieri intemnitata, dar Creon va primi crunta pedeapsa pierzandu-si fiul si sotia.
Finalul operei este evident tragic, Antigona se sinucide, moarte succedata de cea a logodnicului ei.
LEXICOLOGY
· Lexicology is one of the most important branches of linguistics. It studies the vocabulary of a language, the word and its substitutes. It also studies variants of vocabulary which are restricted in usage either geographically (dialects and regional variants of the language), socially (hyper-correct, educated, colloquial or slangy variants), professionally (international words), stylistically or occasionally (the vocabulary of formal/informal language). Lexicology is closely related to other linguistic disciplines, i.e. phonetics (phonology), morphology, syntax and stylistics. Any word may be studied from all these linguistic aspects.
The basic linguistic unit with which lexicology operates is the word. According to dictionaries, a word is “an element of human speech to which a meaning is attached, which is apt to be used grammatically and which can be understood by a human collectivity constituted in a historical community”. § Phonetically, a word is expressed by one or more phonemes which are phonetical minimal units. (minimal unit = the smallest part).
§ e.g. the word a [ə] contains only one phoneme while the word book has 3 phonemes (b,u,k)
§ Lexically, or semantically, a word is expressed by one or more lexemes/semantemes (=the minimal unit of meaning).
e.g. the word house is expressed by one semanteme
the word classroom is made up of two semantemes (class&room)
§ Grammatically, a word is expressed by one or more morphemes (= the minimal grammatical unit).
e.g. -in the word house there is only one morpheme
-in houses there are two morphemes: house+s (s= plural ending of the noun or 3rd person singular ending of the verb): He has two houses; It houses many people.
Those elements that can stand by themselves as words are called FREE MORPHEMES (bookshelf); those that can’t stand alone, but need the support of other morphemes, are called BOUND MORPHEMES (room-rooms; quick-quickly; thinkable) .
1. The root (or the base) is that part of a word that remains when the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. (all endings, formatives)
1. The stem (or theme) is the linguistic form used as a base for a new word. Sometimes the root and the stem may coincide.
Collocations are combinations of words; they refer to the common association of particular words in a pattern:
e.g. strong coffee (not powerful coffee), broad summary (wide summary)
take + a look, a seat, an exam, notes
break + a habit, a leg, the law, the window, the world’s record
The Context (of Latin origin – contextus = “texture”; figuratively: “union”, “connection”, “structure”).
The notion of context may be interpreted in at least two ways:
1.in a limited linguistic sense
2. in a broader sense
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